Satellite

An animation depicting the orbits of GPS satellites in medium earth orbit.
A full size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon.

The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. These originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

Contents

History

Early conceptions

The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The story is serialized in The Atlantic Monthly, starting in 1869.[1][2] The idea surfaces again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).

In 1903 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (in Russian: Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.

In 1928 Slovenian Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor (German: Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-Motor), a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a space station in detail and calculated its geostationary orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.

In a 1945 Wireless World article the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications.[3] Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.

History of artificial satellites

Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika.[4]

In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of a Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century.[5] The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."[6]

On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, which involved using a Jupiter C rocket to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and Explorer 1 became the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958.[7]

In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.[8]

The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.

Space Surveillance Network

The United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN) has been tracking space objects since 1957 when the Soviets opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 space objects orbiting Earth. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The space objects now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent of the space objects are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are space debris.[9] USSTRATCOM is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles. The SSN tracks space objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter (baseball size) or larger.

Non-military satellite services

There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services:[10]

Fixed satellite services

Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth’s surface.

Mobile satellite systems

Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems.

Scientific research satellites (commercial and noncommercial)

Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.

Types

MILSTAR: A communication satellite

Orbit types

Various earth orbits to scale; cyan represents low earth orbit, yellow represents medium earth orbit, the black dashed line represents geosynchronous orbit, the green dash-dot line the orbit of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and the red dotted line the orbit of the International Space Station (ISS).

The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and eccentricity.

The commonly used altitude classifications are Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and High Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.

Centric classifications

Altitude classifications

Orbital Altitudes of several significant satellites of earth.

Inclination classifications

Eccentricity classifications

Synchronous classifications

Special classifications

Pseudo-orbit classifications

Satellite Modules

The satellite’s functional versatility is imbedded within its technical components and its operations characteristics. Looking at the “anatomy” of a typical satellite, one discovers two modules.[10] Note that some novel architectural concepts such as Fractionated Spacecraft somewhat upset this taxonomy.

Spacecraft bus or service module

This bus module consist of the following subsystems:

The structural subsystem provides the mechanical base structure, shields the satellite from extreme temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and controls the satellite’s spin functions.

The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data to the earth control station, and receives the earth control station’s commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.

The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the earth’s shadow. Nuclear power sources (Radioisotope thermoelectric generators) have been used in several successful satellite programs including the Nimbus program (1964–1978).[14]

The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite’s body (e.g. Optical Solar Reflector)

The attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.

Communication payload

The second major module is the communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponder is capable of :

End of life

When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.[15]

Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit.[16] As of 2002, the FCC now requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch.[17]

Launch-capable countries

Launch of the first British Skynet military satellite.

This list includes countries with an independent capability to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. Does not include consortium satellites or multi-national satellites.

First launch by country
Order Country Year of first launch Rocket Satellite
1  Soviet Union 1957 Sputnik-PS Sputnik 1
2  United States 1958 Juno I Explorer 1
3  France 1965 Diamant Astérix
4  Japan 1970 Lambda-4S Ōsumi
5  China 1970 Long March 1 Dong Fang Hong I
6  United Kingdom 1971 Black Arrow Prospero X-3"
7  India 1980 SLV Rohini
8  Israel 1988 Shavit Ofeq 1
-  Russia[1] 1992 Soyuz-U Kosmos 2175
-  Ukraine[1] 1992 Tsyklon-3 Strela
9  Iran 2009 Safir-2 Omid

Notes

  1. Russia and Ukraine were parts of the Soviet Union and thus inherited their launch capability without the need to develop it indigenously. Through Soviet Union they also are on the number one position in this list of accomplishments.
  2. France, United Kingdom launched their first satellites by own launchers from foreign spaceports.
  3. North Korea (1998) and Iraq (1989) have claimed orbital launches (satellite and warhead accordingly), but these claims are unconfirmed.
  4. In addition to the above, countries such as South Africa, Spain, Italy, Germany, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Egypt and private companies such as OTRAG, have developed their own launchers, but have not had a successful launch.
  5. As of 2009, only eight countries from the list above ( Russia and Ukraine instead of USSR, also USA, Japan, China, India, Israel, and Iran) and one regional organization (the European Space Agency, ESA) have independently launched satellites on their own indigenously developed launch vehicles. (The launch capabilities of the United Kingdom and France now fall under the ESA.)
  6. Several other countries, including South Korea, Brazil, Pakistan, Romania, Taiwan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Australia, Malaysia and Turkey, are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities.
  7. South Korea launched a KSLV rocket (created with assistance of Russia) in 25 August 2009, but it failed to put satellite STSAT-2 into precise orbit and the satellite did not start to function.
  8. North Korea claimed a launch in April 2009, but U.S. and South Korean defense officials and weapons experts later reported that the rocket failed to send a satellite into orbit, if that was the goal.[18][19] The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which is a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected.

Launch capable private entities

A few other private companies are capable of sub-orbital launches.

First satellites of countries

First satellites of countries including launched indigenously or by help of other[21]
Country Year of first launch First satellite Payloads in orbit in 2010[22]
 Soviet Union
( Russia)		 1957
(1992)		 Sputnik 1
(Cosmos-2175)		 1430
 United States 1958 Explorer 1 1084
 United Kingdom 1962 Ariel 1 0025
 Canada 1962 Alouette 1 0025
 Italy 1964 San Marco 1 0014
 France 1965 Astérix 0044
 Australia 1967 WRESAT 0011
 Germany 1969 Azur 0027
 Japan 1970 Ōsumi 0123
 China 1970 Dong Fang Hong I 0089
 Poland 1973 Intercosmos Kopernikus 500 0000?
 Netherlands 1974 ANS 0005
 Spain 1974 Intasat 0009
 India 1975 Aryabhata 0034
 Indonesia 1976 Palapa A1 0010
 Czechoslovakia 1978 Magion 1 0005
 Bulgaria 1981 Intercosmos Bulgaria 1300 0001
 Brazil 1985 Brasilsat A1 0011
 Mexico 1985 Morelos 1 0007
 Sweden 1986 Viking 0011
 Israel 1988 Ofeq 1 0007
 Luxembourg 1988 Astra 1A 0015
 Argentina 1990 Lusat 0010
 Pakistan 1990 Badr-1 0005
 South Korea 1992 Kitsat A 0010
 Portugal 1993 PoSAT-1 0001
 Thailand 1993 Thaicom 1 0006
 Turkey 1994 Turksat 1B 0005
 Ukraine 1995 Sich-1 0006
 Chile 1995 FASat-Alfa 0001
 Malaysia 1996 MEASAT 0004
 Norway 1997 Thor 2 0003
 Philippines 1997 Mabuhay 1 0002
 Egypt 1998 Nilesat 101 0003
 Singapore 1998 ST-1 0001
 Taiwan 1999 ROCSAT-1 00009
 Denmark 1999 Ørsted 0004
 South Africa 1999 SUNSAT 0002
 Saudi Arabia 2000 Saudisat 1A 0012
 United Arab Emirates 2000 Thuraya 1 0003
 Morocco 2001 Maroc-Tubsat 0001
 Algeria 2002 Alsat 1 0001
 Greece 2003 Hellas Sat 2 0002
 Nigeria 2003 Nigeriasat 1 0002
 Iran 2005 Sina-1 0004
 Kazakhstan 2006 KazSat 1 0001
 Belarus 2006 BelKA 0001
 Colombia 2007 Libertad 1 0001
 Mauritius 2007 Rascom-QAF 1 0002
 Vietnam 2008 VINASAT-1 0001
 Venezuela 2008 Venesat-1 0001
 Switzerland 2009 SwissCube-1[23] 0001
     orbital launch and satellite operation      satellite operation, launched by foreign supplier      satellite in development      orbital launch project at advanced stage or indigenous ballistic missiles deployed

While Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space,[24] it was launched aboard a U.S. rocket from a U.S. spaceport. The same goes for Australia, who launched on-board a donated Redstone rocket. The first Italian-launched was San Marco 1, launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S. Scout rocket from Wallops Island (VA,USA) with an Italian Launch Team trained by NASA.[25] Australia's launch project (WRESAT) involved a donated U.S. missile and U. S. support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom.[26]

Planned first satellites

Attacks on satellites

In recent times satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks.[34][35]

As test, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth. Russia, the United States and China have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites.[36] In 2007 the Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite,[36] followed by the US Navy shooting down a defunct spy satellite in February 2008.[37]

Jamming

Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming,[38][39] but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.[40][41] It is trivial to transmit a carrier to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with any other users of the transponder. It is common on commercial satellite space for earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency and dual illuminate the transponder rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring that enables them to pin point the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.

Satellite Services

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Rockets in Science Fiction (Late 19th Century)". Marshall Space Flight Center. http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocketry/tl4.html. Retrieved 2008-11-21. 
  2. ↑ Everett Franklin Bleiler; Richard Bleiler (1991). Science-fiction, the Early Years. Kent State University Press. pp. 325. ISBN 978-0873384162. 
  3. ↑ Richard Rhodes (2000). Visions of Technology. Simon & Schuster. pp. 160. ISBN 978-0684863115. 
  4. ↑ "A Brief History of Animals in Space". NASA. http://history.nasa.gov/animals.html. Retrieved 2007-08-08. 
  5. ↑ "Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship". RAND. http://www.rand.org/pubs/special_memoranda/SM11827/index.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  6. ↑ Alfred Rosenthal (1968). Venture Into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. pp. 15. 
  7. ↑ Alicia Chang. "50th anniversary of first U.S. satellite launch celebrated". Associated Press. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2008/01/30/state/n151715S68.DTL. Retrieved 2008-11-21. 
  8. ↑ David S. F. Portree; Joseph P. Loftus, Jr (1999). "Orbital Debris: A Chronology". Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. pp. 18. http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TP-1999-208856.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-21. 
  9. ↑ "Orbital Debris Education Package". Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. http://www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/EducationPackage.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Grant, A.; Meadows, J. (2004). Communication Technology Update (ninth ed.). Focal Press. pp. 284. ISBN 0240806409. 
  11. ↑ "Workshop on the Use of Microsatellite Technologies". United Nations. 2008. pp. 6. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_903E.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  12. ↑ "Earth Observations from Space". National Academy of Science. 2007. http://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/earth_observations_final.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  13. ↑ James Oberg (July 1984). "Pearl Harbor In Space". Omni Magazine. pp. 42–44. http://www.jamesoberg.com/pearl.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  14. ↑ George Schmidt; Mike Houts. "Radioisotope-based Nuclear Power Strategy for Exploration Systems Development". Marshall Space Flight Center. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/schmidtstaif06.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-02. 
  15. ↑ "U.S. Space Objects Registry". http://169.253.2.103/oes/search/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.display. 
  16. ↑ "Conventional Disposal Method: Rockets and Graveyard Orbits". http://www.tethers.com/OrbitalDebris.html. 
  17. ↑ "FCC Enters Orbital Debris Debate". http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_040628.html. 
  18. ↑ Broad, William J. (2009-04-06). "North Korean Missile Launch Was a Failure, Experts Say". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/world/asia/06korea.html?hp. Retrieved 2009-04-06. 
  19. ↑ "NORAD and USNORTHCOM monitor North Korean launch". United States Northern Command. http://www.northcom.mil/News/2009/040509.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Tariq Malik. "SpaceX Successfully Launches Falcon 1 Rocket Into Orbit". Space.com. http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080928-spacex-falcon1-fourthtest.html. Retrieved 2008-10-02. 
  21. ↑ "First time in History". The Satellite Encyclopedia. http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/thema_first.html. Retrieved 2008-03-06. 
  22. ↑ "SATCAT Boxscore". celestrak.com. http://www.celestrak.com/satcat/boxscore.asp. Retrieved 2008-03-05. 
  23. ↑ India launches Switzerland's first satellite
  24. ↑ Daphne Burleson (2005). Space Programs Outside the United States. McFarland & Company. pp. 43. ISBN 978-0786418527. 
  25. ↑ Brian Harvey (2003). Europe's Space Programme. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 114. ISBN 978-1852337223. 
  26. ↑ Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 426. ISBN 978-1563477058. 
  27. ↑ U.S Company to present model of Azerbaijani national satellite
  28. ↑ http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=115761
  29. ↑ "Vremenik". http://www.astronautika.com/vremenik. 
  30. ↑ "Lansarea satelitului romanesc Goliat ar putea fi inca o data amanata pentru 2011". http://www.spacealliance.ro/articles/view.aspx?id=201001200448. 
  31. ↑ "SSTL Contracted to Establish Sri Lanka Space Agency". http://www.satellitetoday.com/st/topnews/SSTL-Contracted-to-Establish-Sri-Lanka-Space-Agency_32873.html. Retrieved 2009-11-28. 
  32. ↑ "SSTL contracted to establish Sri Lanka Space Agency". http://www.adaderana.lk/news.php?nid=6132. Retrieved 2009-11-28. 
  33. ↑ "Design and prototype of a flight microstrip antennas for the Pico satellite ERPSat-1". http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/freesrchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5158292&queryText%3Dsfax%26openedRefinements%3D*%26searchField%3DSearch+All. 
  34. ↑ Dan Morrill. "Hack a Satellite while it is in orbit". ITtoolbox. http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/dmorrill/archives/hack-a-satellite-while-it-is-in-orbit-15690. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  35. ↑ "AsiaSat accuses Falungong of hacking satellite signals". Press Trust of India. 2004-11-22. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-5205866_ITM. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 William J. Broad; David E. Sanger (2007-01-18). "China Tests Anti-Satellite Weapon, Unnerving U.S.". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/18/world/asia/18cnd-china.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all&oref=slogin. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  37. ↑ "Navy Missile Successful as Spy Satellite Is Shot Down". Popular Mechanics. 2008. http://www.popularmechanics.com/blogs/science_news/4251430.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  38. ↑ Jeremy Singer (2003). "U.S.-Led Forces Destroy GPS Jamming Systems in Iraq". Space.com. http://www.space.com/news/gps_iraq_030325.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  39. ↑ Bob Brewin (2003). "Homemade GPS jammers raise concerns". Computerworld. http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,77702,00.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  40. ↑ "Iran government jamming exile satellite TV". Iran Focus. 2008. http://www.iranfocus.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=2852. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 
  41. ↑ Peter de Selding (2007). "Libya Pinpointed as Source of Months-Long Satellite Jamming in 2006". Space.com. http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_070409.html. Retrieved 2008-03-25. 

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